Entity information:
Income Taxes
 
On December 22, 2017, Tax Legislation was signed into law which reduced the Federal corporate income tax rate from 35 percent to 21 percent effective January 1, 2018. During the fourth quarter of 2017, we increased our income tax provision by $865 million as a result of the Federal corporate tax rate change, due to a lower carrying value of our net deferred tax asset.
Total income taxes was as follows:
Year Ended December 31,
2017
 
2016
 
2015
 
(in millions)
Provision for income taxes
$
1,228

 
$
89

 
$
230

Income tax expense (benefit) included in common equity related to:

 

 

Unrealized gains (losses) on investment securities
127

 
(135
)
 
(242
)
Unrealized gains (losses) on fair value option liabilities attributable to our own credit spread(1)
(115
)
 
—

 
—

Unrealized gains (losses) on derivatives designated as cash flow hedges
(5
)
 
9

 
2

Employer accounting for post-retirement plans
1

 
2

 
—

Total income taxes
$
1,236

 
$
(35
)
 
$
(10
)
 
(1) 
See Note 2, "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies and New Accounting Pronouncements," for information on the adoption of new accounting guidance on January 1, 2017 related to fair value option liabilities attributable to our own credit spread.
The components of the provision for income taxes were as follows:
Year Ended December 31,
2017
 
2016
 
2015
 
(in millions)
Current:
 
 
 
 
 
Federal
$
795

 
$
191

 
$
3

State and local
109

 
27

 
35

Foreign
21

 
11

 
2

Total current
925

 
229

 
40

Deferred
303

 
(140
)
 
190

Provision for income taxes
$
1,228

 
$
89

 
$
230


The following table provides an analysis of the difference between effective rates based on the provision for income taxes attributable to pretax income and the statutory U.S. Federal income tax rate:
Year Ended December 31,
2017
 
2016
 
2015
 
(dollars are in millions)
Tax expense at the U.S. Federal statutory income tax rate
$
367

 
35.0
 %
 
$
76

 
35.0
 %
 
$
196

 
35.0
 %
Increase (decrease) in rate resulting from:

 

 

 

 

 

State and local taxes, net of Federal benefit
28

 
2.7

 
10

 
4.6

 
20

 
3.6

Adjustment of Federal tax rate used to value deferred taxes(1)
865

 
82.4

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

Adjustment of State tax rate used to value deferred taxes(2)
(15
)
 
(1.4
)
 
4

 
1.8

 
47

 
8.4

Other non-deductible / non-taxable items(3)
1

 
.1

 
21

 
9.6

 
1

 
.2

Items affecting prior periods(4)
6

 
.6

 
(2
)
 
(.9
)
 
(7
)
 
(1.3
)
Uncertain tax positions
—

 
—

 
(4
)
 
(1.8
)
 
4

 
.7

Low income housing and other tax credit investments
(17
)
 
(1.6
)
 
(17
)
 
(7.8
)
 
(26
)
 
(4.6
)
Change in valuation allowances reserves
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
(5
)
 
(.9
)
Stock based compensation(5)
(8
)
 
(.8
)
 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

Other
1

 
.1

 
1

 
.5

 
—

 
—

Provision for income taxes
$
1,228

 
117.1
 %
 
$
89

 
40.8
 %
 
$
230

 
41.1
 %
 
(1) 
For 2017, the amount relates to the effects of revaluing our net deferred tax asset for new Tax Legislation that was enacted on December 22, 2017.
(2) 
For 2017, the amount includes an out of period adjustment to our deferred tax asset balance which decreased tax expense by $9 million. For 2015, the amount mainly relates to the effects of revaluing our net deferred tax asset for New York City Tax Reform that was enacted on April 13, 2015.
(3) 
For 2016, the amount mainly relates to the accrual of non-deductible penalties.
(4) 
For 2017, the amount relates to the impact of adjustments associated with filing the 2016 State income tax returns and changes in tax credits as a result of filing the 2016 Federal income tax return.
(5) 
As discussed more fully in Note 2, "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies and New Accounting Pronouncements," beginning January 1, 2017, all excess tax benefits and tax deficiencies for share-based payment awards are recorded within income tax expense in the consolidated statement of income (loss).
The components of the net deferred tax asset are presented in the following table:
At December 31,
2017
 
2016
 
(in millions)
Deferred tax assets:
 
 
 
Allowance for credit losses
$
166

 
$
392

Employee benefit accruals
75

 
108

Accrued expenses
72

 
110

Interests in real estate mortgage investment conduits(1)
175

 
548

Unrealized losses on investment securities
96

 
275

Partnerships
73

 
113

Capitalized costs(2)
724

 
—

Fair value adjustments
26

 
—

Other
165

 
360

Total deferred tax assets
1,572

 
1,906

Valuation allowance
(6
)
 
(6
)
Total deferred tax assets, net of valuation allowance
1,566

 
1,900

Deferred tax liabilities:
 
 
 
Fair value adjustments
—

 
48

Other
26

 
49

Total deferred tax liabilities
26

 
97

Net deferred tax asset
$
1,540

 
$
1,803

 
(1) 
Real estate mortgage investment conduits ("REMICs") are investment vehicles that hold commercial and residential mortgages in trust and issue securities representing an undivided interest in these mortgages. HSBC Bank USA holds portfolios of noneconomic residual interests in a number of REMICs. This item represents tax basis in such interests which has accumulated as a result of tax rules requiring the recognition of income related to such noneconomic residuals. In 2017, a substantial portion of our noneconomic residual interests were sold.
(2) 
Reflects our tax return election to capitalize certain service costs.
A reconciliation of the beginning and ending amount of unrecognized tax benefits related to uncertain tax positions is as follows:
 
2017
 
2016
 
2015
 
(in millions)
Balance at January 1,
$
16

 
$
26

 
$
14

Additions based on tax positions related to the current year
2

 
2

 
4

Additions for tax positions of prior years
—

 
—

 
8

Reductions for tax positions of prior years
(1
)
 
(8
)
 
—

Reductions related to settlements with taxing authorities
—

 
(4
)
 
—

Balance at December 31,
$
17

 
$
16

 
$
26


The total amount of unrecognized tax benefits that, if recognized, would affect the effective income tax rate was $13 million, $10 million and $14 million at December 31, 2017, 2016 and 2015, respectively. Included in the unrecognized tax benefits are certain items the recognition of which would not affect the effective tax rate, such as the tax effect of temporary differences and the amount of State taxes that would be deductible for U.S. Federal tax purposes. It is reasonably possible that there could be a change in the amount of our unrecognized tax benefits within the next 12 months due to settlements or statutory expirations in various State and local tax jurisdictions.
It is our policy to recognize accrued interest related to uncertain tax positions in interest expense in the consolidated statement of income (loss) and to recognize penalties, if any, related to uncertain tax positions as a component of other expenses in the consolidated statement of income (loss). Accruals for the payment of interest associated with uncertain tax positions totaled $4 million, $3 million and $4 million at December 31, 2017, 2016 and 2015, respectively. Our accrual for the payment of interest associated with uncertain tax positions increased by $1 million during 2017 and decreased by $1 million during 2016.
Deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences related to the differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases, for State net operating losses and for State tax credits. Our net deferred tax assets, including deferred tax liabilities, totaled $1,540 million and $1,803 million at December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively.
See Note 2, "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies and New Accounting Pronouncements," for further discussion regarding our accounting policy relating to the evaluation, recognition and measurement of both the HNAH Group's and HSBC USA's deferred tax assets and liabilities. In evaluating the need for a valuation allowance at December 31, 2017, it has been determined that HNAH Group projections of future taxable income from U.S. operations based on management approved business plans provide sufficient and appropriate support for the recognition of our net deferred tax assets. At December 31, 2017, we have valuation allowances against certain State capital loss carryforwards for which the aforementioned projections of future taxable income do not provide the appropriate support.
The Internal Revenue Service concluded its examination of our 2012 and 2013 Federal income tax returns in the fourth quarter of 2016. Federal income tax returns for 2014 and forward remain open to examination.
We remain subject to State and local income tax examinations for years 2008 and forward. We are currently under audit by various State and local tax jurisdictions. Uncertain tax positions are reviewed on an ongoing basis and are adjusted in light of changing facts and circumstances, including progress of tax audits, developments in case law and the closing of statute of limitations. Such adjustments are reflected in the tax provision.
 At December 31, 2017, for State tax purposes, we had apportioned and pre-tax effected net operating loss carryforwards of $21 million which expire as follows: $1 million in 2023 - 2027 and $20 million in 2028 - 2032.